Key aspects of a decision support framework include identification of decision objectives, attributes (criteria) which are important to the decision problem and the weighting (importance) of the attributes to the decision given the uncertainty and variability in the data and relationship between the attributes. 1985). Clean burn damage located on the wall opposite of the door opening (not at the area of origin) extended from the floor to the ceiling and had an approximate 6-foot base. The only point of contention then would be the manner in which the ventilation opening was created. If the mud and tape were present to cover the drywall seams, then typically the damage is lesser at this area. Most of the earlier literature supported the idea that specific patterns were indicative of causal links or to the speed of the fire, which was mostly linked to incendiary fires (e.g. Generally, these texts encouraged investigators to visibly identify which side of a content item, wall, or structural member may have been more affected by heat. As such, material properties were already discussed in the degree of fire damage assessment and will not be duplicated here. 4. The researchers stated that one of the objectives of their tests was to determine if burn patterns in the room were consistent with the origin or location of the external fire (Hoffmann et al. Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, pp 657667, Wolfe A, Mealy C, Gottuk D (2009) Fire Dynamics and Forensic Analysis of Limited Ventilation Compartment Fires Volume 1: Experimental. He lists causal factors for this white area of damage as possibly hose stream wash, surface paper burned off leaving a clean noncombustible surface behind, or the wall may have been surfaced differently prior to the fire (i.e. Fire and Materials 5(3):130141, Thomas I, Bennets I (1999) Fires in Enclosures with Single Ventilation Openings Comparison of Long and Wide Enclosure, Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium, Thomas P, Heslden J (1972) Fully Developed Fires in Single Compartments, A Co-operative Research Program of the Conseil International du Batimen (CIB Report No. The determination of the mature of an irregular pattern should not be made by visual interpretation of the pattern alone. Fire Pattern Investigation of automotive fires often involves the interpretation of burn or heat damage patterns on the vehicle body, in the engine compartment, passenger compartment (interior), or cargo space. His findings indicate that gypsum wallboard was the only material that could be reliably used for predicting intensity and duration purposes. Carman attributed the failure to the lack of understanding by the investigation profession of the differences between pre- and post-flashover fire behavior and resulting damage. Section 5, Ch. Mealy et al. Examples of Fire Patterns. The earliest texts (Rethoret 1945; Kennedy 1959), however, do not offer a process on how to use the data, other than vague descriptions on visibly identifying greater areas of damage and tracing varying char damage. Director, Fire Investigation Specialist. Interscience Communications, London (UK), Meacham B (2000) Application of a Decision-Support Tool for Comparing and Ranking Risk Factors for Incorporation into Performance-Based Building Regulations. 2010). There have been many references to penetrations through floors within the early texts on fire investigations, but few provided any guidance on how to interpret from the damage if the fire was moving up through the hole or down. As used here, decision frameworks, tools or methods encompass any mechanism used to support the systematic identification and assessment of information deemed important to a decision, ranging from checklists to structured problem-diagnostic tools such as fault trees, event trees or decision trees, to computationally supported decision analysis tools. Fire Clues: Heat Shadows - Occur when heavy furniture shields part of a wall; can help determine the origin point. In the Ngu study, a series of power law correlation plots were developed between the calcination of gypsum wallboard and the total heat exposure for various types and thicknesses of the material (2004). Cue 3- increasing lines of demarcation moving out of vent openings. The level of damage was varied based on the visible appearance of the number of cracks within set distances and the widths of those cracks. Shanley et al. Conversely, as the smoke moves away from the room of origin the temperatures will decrease, which causes the smoke to descend within the compartment causing lighter soot to deposit across the entire elevation of wall surfaces. As mentioned before, if the magnitude of damage is changing, but the lines of demarcation are related, then a pattern may still exist. Several examples are provided along with engineering calculations such as: Inverted Cone Patterns; Column-shaped Patterns; V-shaped or Cone Patterns; U-shapes and Double U-shaped Patterns; A ceiling jet is formed by the intersection of the plume with the ceiling, which will cause greater heat to be transferred first to the ceiling surface and later to the intersecting wall surfaces. f&dUCk|Q89Z(` RJ Riahi (2012) studied the soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall. denser material like oak will generally show _____ lines of demarcation than carpet. Shanley et al. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. (USA), Oullette J (2008) ATF FRL Fire Test Report 3589, 3593, 3595. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). hVn1ylTQ]BRBJ deR,B}VgHS(6-gl eU48+8 Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 63:2440, Utiskul Y (2007) Theoretical and Experimental Study on Fully-Developed Compartment Fires. Babrauskas (2005) lists several unpublished tests of holes through wood floors and provides a summary of these tests. (1997)) reported that suppression-generated patterns, those caused by water spray from a fire department hose line, were easily identifiable in their test series. 1997). 2007; Hopkins et al. The first reference that fire investigators were able to use depth of calcination for origin determination can be found in 1955, where the authors of this text relate depth of char methods to that which can also be done to spoiled plaster (drywall) or concrete may indicate the point of origin by a similar means of determining greatest damage (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Cue 6-sharp/distinct lines of demarcation near or appear to be emanating from the fuel item. The characteristics of damage that have been reported in the literature to assist investigators in determining the cause of the fire pattern will be evaluated here. Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Technology Report 828, Heskestad G (2008) Fire Plumes, Flame Height and Air Entrainment. Beginning in March of 2005, a series of 20 full-scale fire pattern tests were conducted at Eastern Kentucky University (Gorbett et al. 2003). Because of this, the problem of using fire damage to determine how the fire developed is considered an inverse problem. The authors stated that fire leaves its fingerprints and that each finger of flame leaves its effects and the study of these effects will help you pick the spot where it burned first (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Given these findings, damage cues 1, 2 and 3 are used as the most accurate damage cues for classifying a fire pattern generated by upper layer. The three compartments were similarly constructed measuring 11ft, 5in. 1982; Mealy et al. NFPA 921s original definition stated fire patterns are the physical effects that are visible or measurable remaining after a fireincluding thermal effects on materials, such as charring, oxidation, consumption of combustibles, smoke and soot deposits, distortion, melting, color changes, changes in the character of materials, structural collapse and other effects (NFPA 1992). The effects that remain after a fire are typically related to the damage resulting from the cumulative heat flux received by an exposed material. Upper Layer-Generated Fire Pattern (fire origin was located along adjacent wall-fire test conducted at EKU by author). The test was conducted in a single compartment measuring 14ft by 12ft by 8ft high (4.26m3.66m2.4m) that resembled a residential bedroom with one open doorway to the exterior. This process has significant potential for uncertainty, as the initial conditions are generally unknown to the investigator. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for ULG fire patterns. As the combustion zone is not attached to a fuel item or fuel package any longer, it becomes more difficult for the fire investigator to evaluate whether the damage was caused by a flame plume burning attached to a fuel item or if it is the UHCs burning detached from a fuel item due to ventilation-controlled conditions. In 2003, ten full-scale test burns were performed in a ISO 9705 room 12ft by 12ft with 8ft ceiling heights (3.6m3.6m2.4m) with a primary focus on examining television sets and electronic appliances exposed to a full-scale room fire (Hoffmann et al. Also, damage may be found near the unsealed seams of drywall sections due to infiltrating air. products of combustion interacting with adjacent. identifiable and related lines of demarcation it is important that the lines of demarcation are objectively verifiable by all experts and that a pattern is something that can be objectively identified without interpretation. Babrauskas (1981) reports on ignition of secondary items based on burning a series of common residential fuels and evaluating the heat flux to transducers at varying lateral distances. This suggests that many investigators have received the majority of their training through informal on-the-job training. Journal of Testing and Evaluation 40. doi:10.1520/JTE104261, Madrzykowski D, Kerber S (2009) Fire Fighting Tactics under Wind Driven Conditions: Laboratory Experiments. The sides exposed to the direction from which the fire is coming will be more severely burned and charred. Section 2, Ch. More work is required to further examine these results. Thus, a fire investigator must have a solid grasp of the physics and variables that influence a fires development, as well as how these variables may or may not have influenced the damage outcome. Hicks et al. These tests evaluated many aspects of fire investigations, including the presence of ignitable liquid residue after extinguishment, fire patterns, depth of calcination and the fire dynamics of an under-ventilated compartment. This warning was strengthened over the years to say irregular, curved, or pool shaped patterns on floors and floor coverings should not be identified as resulting from ignitable liquids on the basis of observation of the shape alone (NFPA 2001). Forensic science is defined as the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system, including both criminal and civil actions (Houck and Siegel 2006). Kennedy and Kennedy (1985) described a first method as the V pattern method is based on the fact that fire burns upward and outward toward available fuel, leaving a V shaped pattern that can be traced back to its lowest point which would be the area of origin. Cue 5-increased area and magnitude of damage under the window. Gregory E Gorbett. Holes in floors have had many misconceptions tied directly to floor patterns, as discussed previously. 1980; Keith and Smith 1984; King 1985; Ettling 1990). Putorti (2001) performed a series of experiments that evaluated the damage to a variety of floor surfaces (carpet, wood and vinyl) with varying volumes of ignitable liquids used in the open. The skill can also be artistic such as painting or playing a musical instrument, and physical skills such a walking and weight lifting. The burning during ventilation-controlled conditions is often times detached from a fuel item (i.e. is defined as the average fuel-to-oxygen mass ratio in a compartment divided by the stoichiometric value in a compartment (Wieczorek et al. 2010). California Privacy Statement, The authors declare that they have no competing interests. The third part of the review focuses on the possible causal factors influencing the location and magnitude of damage. It is called "U" shape development because of the shape of the letter U in correlation to a graph, skills developed in the "U shaped" fashion begin on a high position on a graph's Y-axis.The skills start out at a high performance level . Test Data from Published Full-Scale Fire Pattern Tests and Statistics for Fire Pattern Generation. The characteristics that are proposed here include the type, magnitude, direction and proximity (e.g. There was no significant damage identified around the window ventilation, as the researchers discussed that this vent served primarily as an outflow for the heated gases, while the doorway served as the inflow due to the location of the neutral plane. and/or including victims. The presence of a ventilation opening is necessary. Therefore, no systematic scale for the degree of damage had been proposed or adopted. This can help determine the origin point. This section of the literature review focuses on the use of fire patterns and fire pattern generation to identify an area of origin. Despite the lack of validity and this caution, the training and textbooks within the profession during this time used these indicators as a means to link an observation to the speed of the fire and ultimately to the conclusion of fire cause. 2013). This quote, however, is not to generalize that the area of origin is to be equated with the area of greatest thermal damage outside of this specific test series. The first use of the term pattern was in 1969 by Kirk when discussing the normal behavior of heated gases. Department of Justice, USA, Riahi S, Beyler C (2011) Measurement and Prediction of Smoke Deposition from a Fire Against a Wall. One common type of fire pattern is plume-generated patterns, the lines that come from the three-dimensional shape of the fire plume being cut by an interweaving two-dimensional surface, such as a ceiling or wall. (1991) witnessed a 5070% decrease in peak heat flux values when small standoff distances (0.050.25m) were employed. This type of damage was first identified as being helpful at determining the area of origin by Straeter and Crawford (1955). A clean burn area of damage was located at the area of origin only with the fire with the shortest duration of full room involvement burning. The three tests were better instrumented with three total heat flux gauges, one radiant heat flux gauge, three gas sensors (measuring O2, CO2, CO), and gas velocity probes (Oullette 2008). Used to determine the sequence of events that occurred during the fire When fires increase in size or burn for an extended period, fire patterns at the origin may be more difficult to identify. The origin of both fires was located under the window in the sofa, but different accelerants were used to start each test fire with 2-gallons of gasoline in test 1 and scattered newspaper in test 2. a distinct area of damage or cluster of fire effects with identifiable and related lines of demarcation that share common damage characteristics, such as type, magnitude, direction and proximity (e.g. 2023 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. The participants were provided a diagram of the room and photographs of the contents, walls and ceiling. As such, fire origin determination is largely a matter of fire pattern recognition and interpretation (NFPA 2014). The upper layer gases are elevated in temperature and have the ability to radiate heat downward onto the tops of contents throughout the compartment. Many of the early texts discuss this similarly to Rethoret when he states using the method of tracing the course of the fire and by working backwards, the actual place where the fire originated can usually be determined by the greatest damage (Rethoret 1945). Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 7:1618, Crofton, MD, Straeter R, Crawford C (1955) Techniques of Arson Investigation. Learn. Two methods are used to visibly interpret damage on gypsum wallboard (1) cross-sections of the wall can be evaluated for visibly identifiable changes to the gypsum wallboard through depth and (2) the surface effects can be evaluated for visibly identifiable varying DOFD. They confirmed that 6.6lbf (3kgf) of force was best at matching the Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) chemical analysis of dehydration found in the Mann and Putaansuu study (2010). The present paper establishes a review of the work done over the past 80years, which addresses the current situation of the profession in light of this recommendation by the National Academy of Sciences. 2013). A new method of using digital image analysis may also work in increasing the objectivity of identifying varying DOFD (Riahi et al. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 11:1518, Crofton, MD, Kirk P (1969) Fire Investigation. As the fire continues to grow, the pattern becomes . [1] It is called U shape development because of the shape of the letter U in correlation to a graph, skills developed in the U shaped fashion begin on a high position on a graph's Y-axis. [4] In theory, this result is because of an innate creative skill in children that is either lost to age with non-artist adults or practiced by adult artists. A "U" shaped time line is created of the skills development. The earliest texts on fire investigation expressed the importance of using damage and fire patterns in determining the area of origin (Rethoret 1945; Straeter and Crawford 1955; Kennedy 1959; Kirk 1969). The fuels used for their experiments included a natural gas burner, gasoline pool fire and polyurethane foam. 2009-DN-BX-K232. In the report, the authors outlined the need to improve the scientific foundations of the forensic disciplines, particularly those that are dependent on qualitative analyses and expert interpretation of observed patterns, including fire investigations (NIJ 2009). 2003). 2008; NFPA 2014). Soot deposited in rooms away from the room of origin have a fairly uniform soot deposition on all surfaces extending from floor to ceiling (Wolfe et al. Section 2.3.2.1-2.3.2.5 will outline the characteristics that are currently being used by fire investigators in determining the cause of the fire pattern and evaluate the findings of the fire pattern studies. As floor patterns were warned against, so has floor penetrations by both the fire science and investigation communities (Babrauskas 2005; NFPA 2014). Given the history of using fire patterns within the fire investigation profession, it was reasonable that they would also be included in the first edition (1992), and all subsequent editions of NFPA 921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations. Smoke contains particulates, liquid aerosols and gases (NFPA 2014). The compartments were of frame construction with unfinished wood lining the interior of the compartment. 2013). 2004). et al. Decision support frameworks are derived from the field of decision analysis, as well as from uncertainty analysis and risk analysis. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 64:1833, Gorbett G, Morris S, Meacham B, Wood C (2014) A new method for the characterization of the degree of fire damage to gypsum wallboard for use in fire investigations. However, Kirk also identifies many of the very common complications that can arise, which will distract the investigator from following the fire pattern back to its point of origin (Kirk 1969). The first identified process was published in 1955 (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Their example is as follows, if the investigator decides he has located a seat of fire within a radius of error of 1m, he is certain that the original seat of fire lays within an area having one metres [sic] radius (i.e. The Posey study reported that an investigator could visibly identify subtle color changes in individually cut cross-sections of the wallboard and prescribe the DOFD associated with the color changes. These included that soot deposition can be used to aid in the area of origin determination and that the clean burn area size was proportional to the fire size (Wolfe et al. The damage cues evaluated for ventilation-generated damage included: Cue 1- increased area and magnitude of damage within the airflow from the opening. These white areas were similar in appearance to clean burn patterns at first glance, but were shown upon closer examination to be differentiated based on smeared, directional appearance with observable water drip marks. Characteristics of the damage linked with ventilation-generated patterns during ventilation-controlled conditions are large surface areas of damage, increased magnitude of damage, damage found near unsealed drywall seams and angled lines of demarcation located around the ventilation opening or directly opposite of a door opening. Drywall repairs, as well as tape and mud between drywall seams or the lack of this material may alter the observations of damage in these areas and will need to be considered. Ngu did not test this methodology for application toward full-scale fires for investigation purposes. aromatic and unsaturated hydrocarbons). In all cases, ignition of a gasoline spill next to an upholstered chair was used to initiate the fire. Truncated cone fire patterns have been found in over 50% of all fire pattern tests. For example, many materials must reach certain temperatures to melt, deform, or fail. In 2013, Andrew Cox published an article proposing a new methodology for the assessment and interpretation of compartment fire damage through the use of what he termed the origin matrix (Cox 2013). Therefore, fire investigators within most fire scenes typically find charred material. Additional researchers and texts disavowed the use of this visible observation and its connection to the speed of fire (Cooke and Ide 1985; Ettling 1990; NFPA 1992). As shown in the literature search, no system exists and therefore this assumption is unwarranted by previous researchers (Carman 2008; Tinsley and Gorbett 2013; Gorbett et al. There are four logical components to the literature review presented: The first part of the review describes the work completed for establishing a degree of fire damage assessment for commonly encountered materials in structure fires. The ventilation opening was located in the wall opposite of this furniture. NFPA 921 (NFPA 2014) provides some generic guidance regarding the changes in visible appearance to gypsum wallboard in response to heating, but no formal scale had been proposed. However, even the earliest text on fire investigation cautions investigators that ventilation may cause trouble with this process as it will cause greater damage in those areas of better air currents (Rethoret 1945). The skills start out at a high performance level and over time the skills descend to a lower position on the Y-axis. 2013) (Fig. Magnitude refers to the degree of damage to the material. Lines of demarcation are the borders defining the differences in certain heat and smoke effects of the fire on various materials. Barnott et al. However, no procedural details were provided on how to implement the analysis. Ventilation-generated fire patterns have been described in the literature as having a slight influence during fuel-controlled conditions, but become the predominant issue with the location and magnitude of damage after the compartment fire is ventilation-controlled (Shanley et al. There are only two studies that have focused solely on the geometric shapes from plumes (Hicks et al. Terms in this set (60) Fire effects. Selecting a final area of origin hypothesis. 4 Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Gorbett G, Meacham B, Wood C (2010b) Development and Assessment of a Decision Support Framework for Enhancing the Forensic Analysis and Interpretation of Fire Patterns. Kirk was the next to put forward a general process on how to identify the area of origin based on damage. The presence of a soffit and the size of an opening influences the depth of the damage within the compartment, however, as the compartment nears flashover damage begins to occur at lower elevations on all surfaces. 11). The original definition of fire patterns and how it was used in NFPA 921 was all inclusive of the varying degree of damage to materials, clusters of damage, geometric shapes and the process of using damage to arrive at an area of origin (NFPA 2004). 20). 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